Supernova: The Largest Explosion That Takes Place in Space

The universe is quite diverse and a lot of things happen; most of which we get to know about while others remain a mystery. One of these events is the Supernova.

A supernova is basically the explosion of a star. According to NASA, a supernova happens to be the "largest explosion that takes place in space." This explosion is said to be destructive on a scale beyond human imagination. If our planet was to get caught up in such an explosion, the results would certainly be catastrophic.

How Does a Supernova Form?

The core of all stars, including our sun’s, convert hydrogen (main fuel supply) into helium in a process known as Nuclear Fusion. This is the actual process that makes stars shine so brightly.

After burning for billions of years, a star exhausts its hydrogen fuel supply which ceases the nuclear fusion process. When this happens, a powerful pull of gravity pulls the star inwards, and it begins to collapse. This as a result creates a huge shockwave, leading to a massive explosion, otherwise known as a supernova.

Upon exploding, the star usually has reached its end life and ends up becoming either a neutron star (for medium stars), a white dwarf (for smaller stars), or a black hole (for larger stars). The explosion can radiate more energy than our sun would in its entire lifetime and also briefly outshine almost all galaxies.

How a star’s life comes to an end usually depends on its mass. Some stars have enough masses to explode while others like our sun do not have enough mass. Therefore, chances of the sun exploding are minimal and even if it does, its damage to the earth wouldn’t be as catastrophic as other stars.

Two Ways in Which a Star Can Go Supernova

There are two ways in which a star can go supernova.

One, the star continuously absorbs or steals matter from a companion star. Eventually, the star accumulates too much matter which causes it to explode and results in a supernova.

The second scenario occurs at the final moments of a single star’s lifetime. This is where the star exhausts its hydrogen fuel supply, causing some of its mass to flow into its core due to the pull of gravity.

Eventually, the core collapses due to inability to withstand its own gravitational force. As the core collapses, a massive explosion occurs.

Where do Supernovas Take Place?

Most supernovas are observed in other galaxies. According to astronomers, it’s difficult to view them in our Milky Way Galaxy as dust blocks the view.

However, Johannes Kepler discovered the last observed supernova in our galaxy in 1604. A recent discovery by NASA’s Chandra telescope discovered the remains of a more recent supernova which occurred more than 100 years ago in the Milky Way.

Earlier observed supernovas include the SN 185 which was observed by Chinese astronomers in 185 AD, SN 1006, and SN 1054.

There have been more recent observations such as the SN 2008D.

The universe is quite a fascinating place and watching supernovas as they happen can be a thrilling experience. With a telescope, one might end up discovering one huge star explosion.

Otherwise, supernovas do reveal a lot about the universe- that it’s continually expanding and growing at an increasing rate with so many changes happening in the process.

The Future of Geothermal Energy

Geothermal energy is considered as the 3rd or 4th most important source of renewable energy in the world, behind solar, wind, hydro, biomass, wave, and tidal energy. As of now, it accounts for only a small portion of the world’s total power capacity.

However, expert analysts predict things could change much sooner due to the rise of geothermal plants with great technological advancements.

How is the Future of Geothermal Energy?

The future of geothermal energy can be summed up with a single word: Bright

Yes. The future of geothermal energy looks very bright and for a number of reasons.

Limited Supply of Fossil Fuels

Fossil fuels like oil, coal, and natural gas are only available in a limited supply, which means that the supply is gradually reducing. The future is certainly dim for fossil fuels and from the look of things, renewable energy sources like geothermal energy might end up replacing non-renewable fuel sources in a few years to come.

Advanced Technology

The supply of geothermal energy is currently low but with advanced technology, we can only expect to use it more alongside other renewable sources. More plants are now utilizing highly advanced technology to increase drilling efficiency which allows more energy from the underground to be capture.

Engineers have also devised and greatly improved Binary Cycle plants that are designed to release no emissions except water vapor, unlike traditional plants that drill dry steam that emits greenhouse gases.

Instead of tapping dry steam directly from the hydrothermal convection zone, binary plants are instead designed to create a closed loop system where hot water runs through a heat exchanger that in turn heats up another liquid like isobutene, which boils at a much lower temperature compared to water.

The isobutene is then used to run the generator while hot water is sent back to the underground. This technology is not only aimed at eliminating greenhouse gases, but also to prevent steam from escaping.

Thanks to technological improvements, geothermal energy will also become cheap. Actually, the Union of Concerned Scientists has revealed that since 1980, the cost of operating geothermal power plants has significantly reduced by as much as 50 percent.

The Rise of Enhanced Geothermal Systems

One of the reasons why geothermal energy accounts for just a small part of the world’s power capacity is that this energy can only be sourced in areas where the earth’s tectonic plates are close to the surface, such that the heat that builds up is easily released.

This is one of the biggest challenges facing geothermal energy production but thanks to technological improvements, plans to create Enhanced Geothermal Systems are underway. Using this technology, water will be injected in the earth’s underground, particularly in hot and dry rock areas.

This is a smart way of producing geothermal energy through smart artificial means. Once this becomes a reality, geothermal energy use will become widespread and therefore cheap and available to most people.

From the look of things, geothermal energy holds some serious potential. It could be the next big thing in the energy industry in a few years to come.

Furthermore, besides being a renewable energy source, it does not have any negative effects on the environment. With technology improvements, we can finally look forward to a clean energy future.

Why Does Liquid Nitrogen Pose a Serious Health Risk?

In 1999, a lab worker known as James Graham succumbed from asphyxiation (the state of oxygen deprivation) after inhaling liquid nitrogen.

A few years ago, a British teenager underwent an emergency gastrectomy- a surgical procedure that involves the removal of part of the stomach after drinking a cocktail containing liquid nitrogen. A more recent tragedy involved the death of Sgt.Greg Meagher, a Sherriff’s deputy in Augusta, Georgia, who apparently inhaled liquid nitrogen while trying to save an employee inside a sperm bank (there was a leak in the sperm bank).

Several more officers who injured in the tragedy were treated for shortness of breath and later released. All these tragedies show that liquid nitrogen really is a serious health hazard.

But how is liquid nitrogen so deadly, given the fact that of all the Earth’s atmospheric gases, about 78 percent is nitrogen.

The Danger Lies in its Rapid Transformation to Gas

Nitrogen is basically a gas at room temperature. It transforms into a liquid state at -196 degrees Celsius (-321 Degrees Fahrenheit).

The danger lies in its rapid transformation into gas (once it’s exposed to ambient temperatures) which causes a number of health complications such as asphyxiation.

What’s even worse is that if a spill occurs in a confined space and the liquid transforms to gas, it occupies about 700 times the volume of the liquid. The leak in the sperm bank must have caused him to suffocate as upon expanding, it typically displaces the oxygen in the room.

Liquid Nitrogen also poses a health risk as in its liquid state, it becomes intensely cold such that it can cause frostbite or severe cryogenic burns if not handled and used properly.

Can Liquid Nitrogen be Ingested?

Some restaurants have for years been using liquid nitrogen to instantly freeze food and drinks such as ice-cream mixtures, preserve raw eggs, including others. Liquid nitrogen is also used in cooking, although some strict measures have to be taken.

According to Professor Barham, the liquid must be evaporated before any food or drink that has been prepared with the nitrogen is ingested.

The liquid itself should not be ingested because due to its intense temperatures, it can freeze and cause severe damage to your mouth, stomach, and esophagus.

The liquid is also popularly used to chill cocktail glasses so they can appear smoky when a drink is added. A small amount of the liquid added to a drink may also cause it to emit some smoky vapor.

When used in cocktails, the liquid vaporizes before the drink is consumed.

As fun as it sounds however, it should only be done by a highly trained professional as a simple mistake could even lead to death- like in the case of the teenager who had part of his stomach removed after consuming a cocktail containing liquid nitrogen.

It’s clear to see that mishandling liquid nitrogen can present a number of health hazards. Various guidelines for handling liquid nitrogen are in place and must be strictly followed.

The Invention of Fire and its Impact on Human Evolution

Obviously, lighters and matches didn’t exist millions of years ago. This is to say that the early humans had to invent it and use it for various purposes such as cooking food, warming, keeping off wild predators, clearing forests for planting, including others.

According to scientists, the controlled use of fire was most likely an invention of our ancestor, Homo Erectus during the Lower Paleolithic period or Early Stone Age.

Archaeologists have in the past discovered evidence of fire associated with humans in various Lower Paleolithic sites such as Lake Turkana region in Kenya and Wonderwerk Cave in South Africa.

Other sites containing possible evidence in Africa include Gadeb in Ethiopia and Swartkrans in South Africa, with evidence dating approximately 600,000- 1.6 million years ago.

Outside Africa, evidence was found at the Lower Paleolithic sites of Gesher Benot Ya’aqov in Israel, Beeches Pit in the UK, Zhoukoudian site in China, and Qesem Cave in Israel.

Burned clay, charred wood, oxidized patches of earth, burned ashes, and bone fragments were discovered on these sites.

How Was Fire Invented?

There are claims that the Homo Erectus had always known about fire since it occurred naturally- like when lightning strikes resulted in forest fires or when two rocks generated sparks after hitting them together. They probably started their own fires from fires that were already going on and after discovering its usefulness, they decided to invent ways to make it themselves.

Another possibility is that they could have invented fire by rubbing two sticks together, hitting flints together, or hitting two rocks together to produce sparks. As for the source of fuel, it’s likely that relict wood was used. If wood was not available, alternative fuel sources such as cut turf, peat, animal bone, animal dung, straw, and seaweed could have been used.

Indirect Evidence on the History of Fire Invention

According anthropologist Richard Wrangham and archaeologist JAJ Gowlett, an indirect piece of evidence regarding early fires is that the Homo Erectus evolved distinctively smaller mouths, teeth, as well as the digestive system compared to the earlier hominids.

These archaeologists argued that the adoption of cooking food which softens it and makes it much easier to digest may have largely contributed to these changes.

Hearth Construction

Hearths or earth ovens are suspected to have been first used in the Upper Paleolithic period (ca 20, 000-40, 000 years ago). They were most likely used for cooking food, heating, and even burning clay figurines to hardness.

The invention of fire without a doubt played a critical role in human evolution. According to Wrangham, cooked food allowed for greater brain development and evolution in Homo Erectus. It played a huge role in refining the human beings we are today.

Red Mercury: Is it Real or Just a Scam?

On March 30th, 2017, the streets of downtown Atlanta were closed down with police officers redirecting traffic amid “Red Mercury” investigation. This was after a man claiming to possess red mercury sourced from Africa walked into the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission facility.

In other news, three men were arrested and accused during a 2006 London Trial over the claims of trying to procure red mercury, a potentially dangerous substance that was claimed to be used to build nuclear bombs.

According to the chief judge, one of the men believed that this substance was a cure for impotence. But was that the actual reason as to why they were sourcing the raw ingredients of this substance?

Is red mercury as dangerous as it’s purported to be or it’s just a scam?

Well, let’s find out.

Red Mercury is an exceptionally precious, rare, dangerous, and exorbitantly expensive substance with properties that cannot be rivaled by any existing compound.

The substance is said to be a chemical compound known as mercuric iodide, a highly poisonous, odorless, tasteless, and water-insoluble scarlet-red powder. When subjected to about 126-degrees Celsius, the substance turns to yellow.

References to red mercury first came into light after being aired by the biggest Soviet as well as western media sources back in the 80s where it was claimed to be of great significance in the making of nuclear bombs.

ISIS, Al Qaeda, and other terrorist groups are said to have offered as much as $1 million to whoever would offer to supply them with the substance.

A kilogram of this substance was said to go as high as $1, 800, 000.

A Real Threat or a Hoax

Samuel Cohen, a nuclear physicist who recently died, said he believed red mercury was an actual threat. This is a man who took part in the making of the atomic bomb “Los Alamos” during the World War II. He also helped design a neutron bomb in 1958.

According to Cohen, red mercury could possibly be used to create a pure fusion bomb the size of a softball- a bomb capable of wiping out each single living soul in a half-mile radius.

Even with all the hype, its existence has not yet been documented.

Another nuclear physicist and a terrorism expert, Dr.Frankly Barnaby said that there was an actual substance known as red mercury.

According to Barnaby, the substance was a mixture of mercury and antimony in an exceptionally heavy compound with a reddish tint. According to the physicist, the Soviets were manufacturing it in large quantities, although it’s not known why.

During his research, he however stated that he found no evidence of the substance being used in weapons.

Vic Hogsett, an analyst, found all the rumors purporting the high potency of red mercury to be big scams.

According to the Department of Energy and International Atomic Energy Authority, nothing has been proven on whether red mercury actually exists or not.

If such a substance fell into the hands of terrorists and was capable of triggering a nuclear explosion, the threat to their entire world would be catastrophic. And the fact that it is invisible to standard detection measures makes the situation even worse.

All in all, whether it’s real or just a mere scam, the fact that its existence has not yet been documented makes things a lot more murkier for governments and the public as well.

We can only hope that the “red mercury hoax” was in the real sense created as a means to confuse dangerous terrorists and waste their time on a wild-goose chase for a non-existent substance.

The Milky Way Galaxy - Unbelievable Facts About Our Galaxy

The Milky Way Galaxy is our home; a vast place that encompasses our planet, solar system, and billions of stars and planets.

The name “milky” originates from the Greek word “galaxias” and is used to describe its unique appearance as a dim glowing band that spreads across the night sky. It makes individual stars in the sky indistinguishable to the naked eye.

As a vast place measuring approximately 120,000-180,000 light-years in diameter, a lot of discoveries have been made by our scientists, all of which are to inspire and impress.

Well, let’s have a look at some unbelievable facts about our galaxy.

The Galaxy is Quite Vast

As stated earlier, the universe is quite vast and it’s no surprise that it contains over 200 billion stars plus at least 100 billion planets.

Interestingly, it’s not possible to see all these stars in the night sky with the naked-eye. Actually, we can only see about 2500 stars.

Low Surface Brightness

It’s difficult to see the galaxy from a brightly lit urban location due to its low surface brightness, but it’s easy to see it when the moon is below the horizon.

The Milky Way is Warped

The Milky Way is basically a warped or spiral galaxy, a fact which our astronomers attribute to the galaxy’s own neighbors; the Large and Small Magellanic clouds.

According to astronomers, these two dwarf galaxies may be orbiting our galaxy and are therefore believed to have been pulling on the dark matter in the Milky Way, creating a warped shape.

It’s a Halo

Another interesting fact about our galaxy is that it’s a Halo due to the fact that it consists of dark matter.

The halo is however invisible, although its existence has been previously demonstrated by running simulations of how fast the stars inside the galaxy’s disk orbit the center or how the galaxy would appear without this invisible mass.

It’s Was Made from Other Galaxies

According to astronomers, the Milky Way wasn’t originally what it looks like today.

Its current size and shape was formed as a result of merging or rather “eating up” other galaxies in the universe. One of these galaxies is the Sagittarius Dwarf Galaxy and one of its closest galaxies, the Canis Major Dwarf Galaxy is already in the process as its stars are currently being added to the Milky Way’s disc.

There is a Supermassive Black Hole at its Center

Like other galaxies in the universe, the Milky Way has a supermassive black hole at its center.

This black hole is known as Sagittarius A which is a massive source of radio waves measuring approximately 22.5 million kilometers across. This is about the size of planet Mercury.

Possibility of Colliding with the Andromeda Galaxy

Astronomers estimate that in about 5 billion years, the Milky Way Galaxy will collide with its closest neighbor, the Andromeda Galaxy.

It’s said that the two are moving towards each other at approximately 70 miles per second. Upon colliding, scientists claim that they will provide an influx of fresh material that will kick-start a brand new formation of stars.

Up to date, there is still so much more to explore in our galaxy. There are many more mysteries to be solved and lots of interesting things to discover.

Hopefully, more advanced technology will help us unearth these mysteries in the near future.

Bioelectronics Medicine: The Future is Certainly Bright

Since the ancient days, health complications have been a major concern for humans. We have witnessed many deaths and disabilities due to lack of proper treatment.

Over time however, we have witnessed numerous improvements in the field of medicine with scientists researching and introducing more comprehensive approaches, techniques, and methods. The goal has always been to find the best treatments for various ailments, alleviate the symptoms, improve the patients’ life quality, and extend their lifespan.

One of the best new approaches currently being used to treat and diagnose disease and injury is Bioelectronics medicine.

What is Bioelectronics?

Bioelectronics is basically the application of the principles of electronics to biology and medicine.

In medicine, bioelectronics is used to treat and diagnose certain diseases and injuries.

This approach uses highly advanced device technology (nerve stimulating or nerve blocking devices) to read and modulate electrical activity within the patient’s nervous system, providing doctors with a great opportunity for real-time diagnostics and offering numerous treatment options.

These high-tech devices are either implanted on a nerve or patched on the skin. These devices are designed to modulate certain nerve activity, cause a change in organ function, restore and improve the health of a patient without causing the side effects of conventional medicine.

Bioelectronics Applications in Medicine

Having shown promising results in clinical trials, bioelectronics technology is now being extensively applied in medicine.

Some of the most interesting applications of bioelectronics in medicine include;

• Artificial Limbs: If you’ve ever watched a movie where some characters are fitted with artificial limbs, then at least you have an idea of what this technology really looks like. The Bioelectronics technology has now made it possible for people who have lost their limbs due to accidents or medical conditions to resume their normal function by fitting them with artificial limbs.
• Pacemakers: People with heart complications can now benefit from pacemakers which use bioelectronics technology to regulate their heartbeats.
• Biosensors: Thanks to this incredible technology, doctors are now able to monitor body temperature and measure stress and strain in certain parts of the body of a patient through sensors attached to the body. This of course helps them to make accurate diagnosis fast.
• Blood Glucose Meter: Thanks to bioelectronics technology, diabetes patients who need to keep the blood glucose level in check can now do so by use of blood glucose meters, right at the comfort of their homes.

The Future of Bioelectronics Medicine

The future certainly looks bright for bioelectronics medicine. More research to verify the credibility of this technology is still underway. However, the fact that it has shown remarkable results in just a short span of time is just incredible;

We can only hope that this technology will be used extensively to benefit more people in the near future.